Effect of Temperature on Enzyme-catalyzed Reaction

Effect of Temperature on Enzyme-catalyzed Reaction Yasmine Dabash Introduction Topic: The denaturing of enzymes. Purpose: To further investigate catalysts and enzymes as well as their reactions to temperature change. Problem: How does temperature affect the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction? Research Source 1: http://www.worthington-biochem.com/introbiochem/tempeffects.html Information found: Like the majority of chemical reactions, the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction raises as the temperature elevates. According to the source, â€Å"A ten degree Centigrade rise in temperature will increase the activity of most enzymes by 50 to 100%.†Many enzymes are unfavorably affected by intense heat. Because most animal enzymes quickly become denatured over 40 °C, nearly all enzyme activity is accomplished under that temperature. After some time, enzymes neutralize at even reasonable temperatures. The recommended temperature to store enzymes is 5 °C or lower but even some enzymes deactivate when frozen. Source 2: http://classroom.synonym.com/effects-temperature-enzyme-activity-biology-6049.html Information found: Collisions between molecules increase as temperature increases. This is because of the increase in velocity and kinetic energy that is a result of increased temperature. With rapider velocities, there will be less time between molecule collisions. This results in supplementary molecules reaching activation energy, which elevates the rate of the reactions. Since the molecules are also moving quicker, collisions between enzymes and substrates also increase. Identify Variables Independent Variable: Liver temperature Dependent Variable: The rate at which the liver rises to the surface of the hydrogen peroxide. Controlled Variables: Environment temperature, liver origin (same individual of the same species), concentration of hydrogen peroxide solution, water composition, filter paper size, filter paper weight and density, beaker material, forceps material, Petri dish material, filter paper material, and pipette material. Hypothesis: If enzymes are heated to 70 °C then the rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions will decrease because the denaturing of enzymes occurs after 40 °C. The Plan Procedure: Step 1: Put on an apron, gloves, and safety goggles. Also, make sure hair is tied up away from your face and out of the way of any experimental material. Step 2: Use forceps to place raw liver in an open Petri dish. Use a pipette to put a few drops of hydrogen peroxide solution on the liver. Observe any chemical or physical changes. (Caution: Rinse off any hydrogen peroxide that comes in contact with skin, eyes, or clothing) Step 3: Cut of a 5 cm x 5 cm piece of filter paper and absorb it with a sample of liver. Step 4: Fill 50 a 50 mL beaker with 25 mL of 1% hydrogen peroxide solution using a graduated cylinder to measure. Step 5: Use forceps to drop the livered filter paper to the bottom of the solution. Record using a timer how long the filter paper takes to rise to the surface. Seek assistance if needed. Step 6: Now, heat 25 mL of water and a sample of liver in a 50 mL beaker to 70 °C with on a hot plate. (Caution: Hot plates are called hot plates for a reason; their hot. They can burn you. Seek adult assistance if young or incapable.) Step 7: Turn the hot plate OFF and remove the beaker from the hot plate using beaker tongs. Then remove the liver from the water using forceps and set the sample into a Petri dish. Step 8: Repeat the previous experiment with the heated liver. Records results then analyze the data. Step 9: Compare and contrast the data sets from each part of the experiment. Data Liver temperature The time it took for the liver to reach the surface of a 1% hydrogen peroxide. (seconds) Room Temperature Liver 5.73 seconds 70 °C Liver 7.22 seconds Results and Understandings Graphing: Data analysis: When analyzing the results of the experiment, it is easy to see that there are trends in the data. The relationship between enzyme activity and temperature is inversely proportional. The higher the temperature of the enzymes, the faster they react and the less time the livered filter paper takes to rise to the surface of a 1% hydrogen peroxide solution. However, after 40 °C, the denaturing of enzymes; therefore slowing down enzyme-catalyzed reactions. This is because as the denaturing of enzymes occurs they no longer fit their specific ‘lock’ to which they are ‘key’ to. Though there was not any lack in accuracy, there was an extreme lack of precision during this experiment. Firstly, the assistant scientific hands were not at all interested in the experiment; making it exceedingly difficult to attempt to get them on task, complete the experiment, and get steps that require the cooperation of more than one individual done. It is also importance to recognize the limitation of time allotted for previously mentioned tasks to be applied; one class period. Also, it would have made all the difference in the world if the time it took for the filter paper to rise in increments of 5 mL could have been measured since it rose through 25 mL of 1% hydrogen peroxide solution. In doing this, it would be seen whether the filter paper accelerated positively or decelerated as it rose through the solution. But due to time constraints, lack of expertise, and lack of an extremely precise timing device, such an idea could not be executed. But even before trying to accompli sh that out of the ballpark idea, it would have been better to allow more trials for each temperature of liver and perhaps entertain the addition of higher or lower temperatures of liver. Perhaps refrigerated liver? Even better, liver at or around 40 °C. Knowing how enzymes react to heat is vital for a number of biologists globally. Especially since biologists are required to properly handle and store enzymes. Enzymes are best stored below 5 °C in order for them to not o dormant. Also, it is important for real life biologists to understand that enzymes will work faster in heat only up to a certain point. For example, in many animals, enzymes denature after they hit 40 °C. Almost all enzyme activity happens below that temperature. Conclusion Claim: In correlation to the hypothesis, the outcome of the experiment proved the following hypothesis: â€Å"If enzymes are heated to 70 °C then the rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions will decrease because the denaturing of enzymes occurs after 40 °C.† The hypothesis gathered from the evidence pertaining to the collision theory ended up being true not only on paper but in real life experimentation and scenarios as well. Since the chemical reaction slowed when the livered filter paper was heated to 70 °C, then it is easy to say with utmost certainty that the relationship between temperature and reaction time is indirectly proportional up until 40 °C. In regards to the purpose of the lab experiment, many investigations have been made that further our knowledge on how to properly handle enzymes temperature wise. Which temperature are too hot, which are not hot enough, etc. Also, from the information gathered, other intelligent assumptions can be made on the proper storage of enzymes. Since it is known that enzymes, over time, become dormant—wouldn’t it be ideal to freeze them so they retain their activity? But perhaps, that is for yet another experiment. Evidence and Elaboration Evidence 1: The collision theory states that as temperature rises, particles move more rigorously as collide more often. When these molecules bump into one another, reactions occur—in this example, the enzyme-catalyzed reaction is the result. The amount of collisions it takes for a full reaction to occur is the activation energy of a chemical reaction. This theory is the first piece of evidence for the increase in enzyme-catalyst activity then temperature increases. Evidence 2: The Induced Fit theory of enzymes accounts for the fact that the activity and substrate of an enzyme are complementary and mold to one another’s ice-cube tray, or as biologymad.com likes to say, â€Å"Mould to each other like ‘hand in glove.’† The links in substrates and enzymes bend when enzyme-substrate compounds form, deteriorating them significantly. Unlike the ‘Lock and Key’ theory of enzymes, the Induced Fit theory accounts for catalytic action and the products of chemical reactions pertaining to enzymes. Works Cited Enzymes. Biology Mad. Master Frameset, 07 Nov. 2005. Web. 07 Dec. 2014. Introduction to Enzymes: Temperature Effects. Worthington Biochemistry. Worthington Biochemical Corporation, n.d. Web. 07 Dec. 2014. Santhosh, Lakshmi. The Effects of Temperature on Enzyme Activity. Synonym. Demand Media, 14 Aug. 2013. Web. 05 Dec. 2014.

On philosophy

Virginia Held, in her article Feminist Transformations of Moral Theory, claims that the historical groundings of the precepts of philosophy, including the sets of ethical theories and positions, and philosophy in general have been erected from the viewpoints of men and that the ideas involved are not entirely â€Å"gender-neutral† as they appear to claim themselves (Held). One can observe that throughout the stretch of the time that encompassed the early stages of philosophy up to the time of the industrial revolution and the onset of the age of globalization, men have dominated the field of philosophy. Women in the past societies in particular were given very minimal role in social activities and endeavors inasmuch as most of these women were simply confined to their homes and their tasks were greatly deprived of social participation (Claassen and Joyce). This observation leads us to the assumption that, because of these deterring factors on the very presence of women in the society, women have also played very little part in the development of philosophy in general and the number of philosophical discussions all-over the world. The rise of feminism alongside and the shift in the patriarchal patterns that loomed over societies, however, have appeared to dissolve one by one the barriers that isolate women from having a part in the philosophical plane. One can further analyze that Virginia appears to argue that what the philosophy we know of today is the product of the past philosophizing done in large part by men. Richard Brandt, for this matter, has principally endorsed in some of his works the idea of overcoming bias and prejudice in the very precepts of morality (Stevenson). This observation appears to relieve Brandt of the accusations hurled by Virginia towards the evolution of philosophy throughout the decades that humanity has dwelled on its rough, intricate, and oftentimes bewildering edges. Brandt argues that passion should not be allowed to intervene whenever we are to delve into matters that concern morality for it blurs the capacity of our reason and thinking on equally significant moral issues (Brandt). If this is the case, indeed Brandt may have already swung himself off the reaches of Virginia’s accusations with regards to traditional philosophy for the reason that traditional philosophy has been seen to be relished with all sorts of manly traces. The suggestion being offered by Brandt is one that relieves philosophy of any bias towards a specific gender in any working context, one that seeks to salvage the philosophy we know today from the dregs of traditional philosophy. However, there remains the contention that even if Brandt is arguing for an objective quest, at least in terms of the moral precepts and moral traditions that humanity has strongly held through time, the very fact that Brandt sees his world from a man’s point of view can be a point of contention. This taunts one to pose questions of uncertainty and credibility with regards to his claim of a rationalizing empty of passion and bias. If Virginia Held is aptly precise and right with her argument, it appears, then, that Brandt’s perception on philosophy and that of morality is not thoroughly empty of bias for the reason that the latter sees the world from the understanding and vision of man whereas women might have a differing view with regards to what they know of about the world they both live in. This leads us to the assumption that, granted Virginia’s arguments are strongly founded, Brandt’s ideas and the rest of his arguments cannot entirely be empty of bias given the fact that he is a man and that a woman thinks rather differently to those of males. And there has indeed been numerous interpretations that separates from traditional philosophy, especially from a feminist approach where women are treated as individuals who also share roles in the society in general. Capital punishment and killings in war Capital punishment is typically utilized in order to put unlawful people before the justice system of societies and put an end to their unlawful means—and to their lives—thereby removing further instances of committing heinous crimes by the same criminal. War killings, on the other hand, are primarily taken to be understood as killings in the battlefield, especially in times of war wherein combatants or armies from the opposing sides are granted by their authorities to obtain their mission through every possible means—such as gunning down the enemy—in order to not only deter the enemy from advancing further but also to finally put an end to the enemy’s existence. From a Kantian perspective, both capital punishment and killings in war are immoral acts in the sense that both of these essentially take away the lives of men which is, on the other hand, strictly against the moral imperatives. Basically, Kant suggests that taking away the life of another individual cannot be justified because it is not the right thing to do at whatever given situation. Utilitarianism, on the other hand, provides us with another view that implies that both capital punishment and war killings can be morally justified given that both of these promote the general good or the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. That is, taking away the life of another individual can be justified in the ethical issues given that the basis for the action is justifiable. And this moral theory asserts that actions can indeed be justified, specifically in the context of the measurement of happiness and its consequent effects on the welfare and happiness of the greatest number of individuals. However, the strand of rule utilitarianism splits from this claim because it argues that rules should not be bent just for the attainment of general happiness which, in this case, is taken to mean that moral precepts and legal rules concerning life should never be flexed in order to fit the situation. Quite on the contrary, the very situations of capital punishment and killings in war should be critically analyzed based on these precepts and rules in order to arrive at the greatest happiness for the greatest number. William Godwin William Godwin is not inclined towards prejudice and thought it as the source of much that is wrong in the world as he also stressed the significant role of impartiality. The value of human life should be taken as a central part of the analysis of Godwin’s claim primarily because in order for the individual to be able to arrive at a sound judgment the individual should nevertheless take a look into the course of the years that have molded the life that he or she possesses (Monro). Prejudice, on the contrary, creates the notion of selectivity wherein the individual may be inclined to prefer this from that or, in another context, this person from another person for a number of reasons pegged on the selective attitude of the person. Without a concern for the value of human life, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to arrive at an impartial attitude towards others primarily because without having a universal sense of benevolence towards mankind in general impartiality can hardly be attained. Hence, in order for one to be able to embrace the idea that prejudice is the source of much that is wrong in the world, one ought to be impartial both in deeds and in thoughts. With a firm consideration on the value of human life among all of humanity, one cannot easily stray away from the holds of an impartial treatment towards other people and that one cannot straightforwardly resort to prejudice. Without having a sense of attachment towards the primacy and value of human life, it would be quite difficult as well, if not more, to act truthfully as a benevolent individual empty of prejudice in thought and deed or to at least pretend to be like an impartial individual. Kant and Singer’s animal rights Kant says that duty is the inevitability or necessity of functioning out of a strict observation for laws that are universal. Consequently, the worth or value of the action done by the individual in terms of moral contexts is essentially drawn from the intention of the action. Moreover, Kant’s treatment of a maxim can be briefly summarized as a given principle upon which one acts such that its nature is based on the manner in the expression of the intention. Thus, the content of the actions in terms of intent have an important role in Kantian ethics. This content can be further expressed in two manners. The first states that there are maxims or imperatives which stipulate that there are acts based on the desires of the individual. This is what Kant calls the hypothetical imperative. On the other hand, those which are based on reason and not merely dependent on one’s desires belong to the categorical imperative. The latter type deals with what ought to be done. All these can be roughly transposed and summarized into Kant’s conception of the practical imperative which claims that one ought to act to treat human beings as ends in themselves and never merely as a means to any given end, whether the individual is the self or another person. Peter Singer argues that ethical precepts should be extended so that it will encompass animals as well. If this is the case, and if we are to place this in the context of Kant’s proposition, then we are to arrive at the idea that, after ethical precepts have been made to be understood to encompass animals, no one is to treat any animal as means in order to arrive at certain ends but rather as the very ends themselves. Kant would disagree with Singer in the sense that the former’s theory is anchored on the rationality of human beings whereas animals are empty of rational capacity. Singer, on the other hand, would disagree with Kant in this notion primarily because animals also have rights and that these rights should be also recognized within the ethical sphere. References Arthur, John. Morality and Moral Controversies: Readings in Moral, Social and Political Philosophy. 7th ed: Prentice Hall, 2004. Brandt, Richard B. â€Å"A Motivational Theory of Excuses in the Criminal Law.†Ã‚   Morality, Utilitarianism, and Rights. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992. 252. Claassen, Cheryl, and Rosemary A. Joyce. â€Å"Women in Prehistory.† American Antiquity 63.1 (1998): 175. Held, Virginia. â€Å"Feminist Transformations of Moral Theory.† Philosophy and Phenomenological Research 50.Supplement (1990): 321. Monro, D. H. â€Å"Godwin's Moral Philosophy: An Interpretation of William Godwin.† Ethics 64.2 (1954): 134. Stevenson, Charles L. â€Å"Brandt's Questions About Emotive Ethics.† The Philosophical Review 59.4 (1950): 529.   

Supermajority Vote in US Congress

A supermajority  vote is a vote that must exceed the number of votes comprising a simple majority. For example, a simple majority in the 100-member Senate is 51 votes; while a 2/3 supermajority vote  requires 67 votes. In the 435-member House of Representatives, a simple majority is 218 votes; while a 2/3 supermajority requires 290 votes. Key Takeaways: Supermajority Vote The term â€Å"supermajority vote† refers to any vote by a legislative body that must get more votes than a simple majority of votes in order to win approval.In the 100-member United States Senate, a supermajority vote requires a 2/3 majority or 67 of 100 votes.In the 435-member United States House of Representatives, a supermajority vote requires a 2/3 majority or 290 of 435 votes.In the US Congress, several major legislative actions require a supermajority vote, most notably impeaching the president, declaring a president incapable of serving under the 25th Amendment, and amending the Constitution. Supermajority votes in government are far from a new idea. The first recorded use of supermajority rule took place  in ancient Rome during the 100s BCE. In 1179, Pope Alexander III used a supermajority rule for papal elections at the Third Lateran Council.   While a supermajority vote can technically be specified as any fraction or percentage greater than one-half ( 50%), commonly used supermajorities include three-fifths (60%), two-thirds (67%), and three-quarters (75%) When is a Supermajority Vote Required? By far most measures considered by the U.S. Congress as part of the legislative process require only a simple majority vote for passage. However, some actions, like impeaching presidents or amending the Constitution, are considered so important that they require a supermajority vote. Measures or actions requiring a supermajority vote: Impeaching: In cases of impeachment of federal officials, the House of Representatives must pass articles of impeachment by a simple majority vote. The Senate then holds a trial to consider the articles of impeachment passed by the House. Actually convicting an individual requires a 2/3 supermajority vote of the members present in the Senate. (Article 1, Section 3)Expelling a Member of Congress: Expelling a member of Congress requires a 2/3 supermajority vote in either the House or Senate. (Article 1, Section 5)Overriding a Veto: Overriding a presidential veto of a bill requires a 2/3 supermajority vote in both the House and Senate. (Article 1, Section 7)Suspending the Rules: Temporarily suspending the rules of debate and voting in the House and Senate requires a 2/3 supermajority vote of the members present. (House and Senate rules)Ending a Filibuster: In the Senate only, passing a motion to invoke cloture, ending extended debate or a filibuster on a measure requires a 3/5 supermajo rity vote - 60 votes. (Rules of the Senate) Rules of debate in the House of Representatives preclude the possibility of a filibuster. Note: On November 21, 2013, the Senate voted to require a simple majority vote of 51 Senators to pass cloture motions ending filibusters on presidential nominations for Cabinet secretary posts and lower federal court judgeships only. Amending the Constitution: Congressional approval of a Joint Resolution proposing an amendment to the U.S. Constitution requires a 2/3 majority of those members present and voting in both House and Senate. (Article 5)Calling a Constitutional Convention: As a second method of amending the Constitution, the legislatures of 2/3 of the states (33 states) can vote to request that the U.S. Congress convenes a constitutional convention. (Article 5)Ratifying an Amendment: Ratification of an amendment to the Constitution requires the approval of 3/4 (38) of the state legislatures. (Article 5)Ratifying a Treaty: Ratifying treaties requires a 2/3 supermajority vote of the Senate. (Article 2, Section 2)Postponing a Treaty: The Senate may pass a motion to indefinitely postpone its consideration of a treaty by a 2/3 supermajority vote. (Senate rules)Repatriating Rebels: An outgrowth of the Civil War, the 14th Amendment gives Congress the power to allow former rebels to hold office in the U.S. gove rnment. Doing so requires a 2/3 supermajority of both the House and Senate. (14th Amendment, Section 3)Removing a President from Office: Under the 25th Amendment, Congress can vote to remove the President of the United States from office if the vice president and the Presidents Cabinet declare the president unable to serve and the president contests the removal. The removal of the president from office under the 25th Amendment requires a 2/3 supermajority vote of both the House and Senate. (25th Amendment, Section 4) Note: The 25th Amendment is an effort to clarify the process of presidential succession. On-the-Fly Supermajority Votes The parliamentary rules of both the Senate and House of Representatives provide means by which a supermajority vote can be required for the passage of certain measures. These special rules requiring supermajority votes are most often applied to legislation dealing with the federal budget or taxation. The House and Senate draw authority for requiring supermajority votes from Article 1, Section 5 of the Constitution, which states, Each chamber may determine the Rules of Its Proceedings. Supermajority Votes and the Founding Fathers In general, the Founding Fathers favored requiring a simple majority vote in legislative decision-making. Most of them, for example, objected to the Articles of Confederations requirement for a supermajority vote in deciding such questions as coining money, appropriating funds, and determining the size of the army and navy. However, the framers of the Constitution also recognized the need for supermajority votes in some cases. In Federalist No. 58, James Madison noted that supermajority votes could serve as a shield to some particular interests, and another obstacle generally to hasty and partial measures. Hamilton, too, in Federalist No. 73 highlighted the benefits of requiring a supermajority of each chamber to override a presidential veto. It establishes a salutary check upon the legislative body, he wrote, calculated to guard the community against the effects of faction, precipitancy, or of any impulse unfriendly to the public good, which may happen to influence a majority of that body.

Historical Process - 1214 Words

Jimmy castro Unit: The Historical Process This Unit Activity will help you meet these educational goals: Inquiry Skills—You will apply disciplinary concepts and tools; analyze societal issues, trends, and events; develop credible explanations of historical events and developments based on reasoned interpretation of evidence; gather, evaluate, and use evidence; and communicate your conclusions. 21st Century Skills—You will employ online tools for research and analysis, use critical-thinking and problem-solving skills, communicate effectively, and assess and validate information. Introduction For any historian, it is important to find useful resources and analyze relevant information from those sources. This activity will help you†¦show more content†¦The one thing that the primary scources have in comman is for the country to come together as one nation and stand up for their freedom and not watch their pride and freedom drift away from their lives. ________________________________________________________________________ Resources Writing Resources Research and writing information Creating a thesis statement Examining and evaluating sources Methods for writing a high-quality paper The author-date system ContentShow MoreRelatedThe Historical And Evolutionary Process That Occurred Essay1387 Words   |  6 PagesTo fully understand the significance of our historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU’s), we must examine the historical and evolutionary process that occurred in early education. Education during the colonial period included a strong emphasis on the bible. Leaders wanted students to be able to read and apply biblical principles. 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